Blackberry
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the Rubus
genus in the Rosaceae family,
hybrids among these species within the Rubus subgenus, as well as
hybrids between the Rubus and Idaeobatus subgenera. What
distinguishes blackberries from its raspberry relatives is whether the torus
(receptacle) picks with the fruit, a blackberry, or remains on the plant when
picked leaving a hole in the fruit, a raspberry. The term 'bramble',
a word meaning any impenetrable scrub, has traditionally been applied
specifically to the blackberry or its products,[1]
though in the United States it applies to all members of the Rubus genus. In
the western US, the term caneberry is used to refer to blackberries and
raspberries as a group rather than the term bramble.
The (usually) black fruit is not a
true berry;
botanically it is termed an aggregate fruit,
composed of small drupelets. It is a widespread and well-known group of over 375
species, many of which are closely related apomictic microspecies native throughout the temperate
Northern Hemisphere
Growth and anatomical description
Blackberries are perennial plants which typically bear biennial
stems ("canes") from the perennial root system.[3]
In its first year, a new stem, the primocane,
grows vigorously to its full length of 3–6 m (in some cases, up to 9 m),
arching or trailing along the ground and bearing large palmately compound leaves with five or seven leaflets; it does not produce any
flowers. In its second year, the cane becomes a floricane and the stem
does not grow longer, but the lateral buds break to produce flowering laterals
(which have smaller leaves with three or five leaflets).[3]
First and second year shoots usually have numerous short curved very sharp prickles that are often erroneously called thorns. These prickles
can tear through denim with ease, and make the plant very difficult to navigate
around. Prickle-free cultivars have been developed. Recently the University of
Arkansas has developed primocane fruiting blackberries that grow and flower on
first year growth much as the primocane-fruiting (also called fall bearing or
everbearing) red raspberries do.
Unmanaged mature plants form a
tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip on many
species when they reach the ground. Vigorous and growing rapidly in woods,
scrub, hillsides and hedgerows, blackberry shrubs tolerate poor soils, readily colonizing wasteland,
ditches and vacant lots.[2][4]
The flowers are produced in late spring and
early summer on short racemes on the tips of the flowering laterals.[3]
Each flower is about 2–3 cm in diameter with five white or pale pink petals.[3]
The drupelets only develop around
ovules that are fertilized by the male gamete from a pollen grain. The most
likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate pollinator
visits.[5]
Even a small change in conditions, such as a rainy day or a day too hot for
bees to work after early morning, can reduce the number of bee visits to the
flower, thus reducing the quality of the fruit. Incomplete drupelet development
can also be a symptom of exhausted reserves in the plant's roots, or infection
with a virus
such as Raspberry
bushy dwarf virus.
Ecology
Blackberry leaves are food for
certain caterpillars; some grazing mammals, especially deer, are also very fond
of the leaves. Caterpillars of the concealer moth
Alabonia geoffrella have been found feeding inside dead blackberry shoots. When
mature, the berries are eaten and their seeds dispersed by several mammals,
such as the red fox and the Eurasian badger, as well as by small birds.[6]
Blackberries grow wild throughout
all parts of the United Kingdom and Ireland. They are an important element in
the ecology of those countries. Harvesting the berries is a popular pastime in
these countries. However, it is also considered an invasive weed, sending down its strong suckering
roots amongst garden hedges and shrubs. In some parts of the world, such as in
Australia, Chile, New Zealand and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some
blackberry species, particularly Rubus armeniacus (syn. R. procerus, 'Himalaya') and Rubus laciniatus ('Evergreen'), are naturalised and considered an invasive species and a serious weed.[2]
The blackberry tends to be red
during its unripe ("green") phase, leading to an old expression that
"blackberries are red when they're green".
In various parts of the United
States, wild blackberries are sometimes called "Black-caps", a term
more commonly used for black raspberries, Rubus occidentalis.
As there is forensic evidence from
the Iron Age
Haraldskær Woman that she consumed blackberries some 2500 years ago, it is
reasonable to conclude that blackberries have been eaten by humans over thousands
of years.
Uses
Food
The soft fruit is popular for use in
desserts, jams, seedless jelly and sometimes wine. It is often mixed with
apples for pies and crumbles. Black berries are also used to produce candy.
Health
benefits
Blackberries have a high abundance
of healthy antioxidants and nutrients such as anthocyanins,
salicylic acid, ellagic acid, and fiber. Recent research on berries has shifted focus away from
antioxidants as there is ample evidence that the antioxidants in berries do not
get into the bloodstream and act as radical scavengers. However, there is
evidence that they are important in cardiovascular health. Anthocyanins are
antioxidants found in blackberries that are responsible for giving blackberries
their rich and dark color. This concentrated pigment of blackberries is
acknowledged with decreasing the rate at which the memory deteriorates. [7][full citation needed][unreliable source?]
Blackberries contain a compound
called salicylic acid.[7]
This compound found in blackberries has been used for centuries for its
medicinal qualities. Salicylic acid has been proven to numb bodily pains and
treat unusually high body temperature, or fevers.[8][full citation needed] Salicylic
acid may have similar properties to aspirin that aid in protecting the body
against heart disease.[7]
Arguably, the most beneficial
property of the blackberry is its profusion of ellagic acid. Ellagic acid is a
phytochemical, meaning it is only found in certain plants. In experimental
studies, ellagic acid is used to treat tumors in mice; the result being ellagic
acid is reliable for causing the death of particular cancer cells.[9][10][full citation needed]
Researchers believe that ellagic acid may also work to reduce the harmful
effects of estrogen that create breast cancer cells.[11][full citation needed]
Blackberries have both soluble and
insoluble fiber. One cup of blackberries (144 g) has an average of 7.6 g of
fibre and contain half the daily recommended dose of vitamin C, which protects
the immune system and can lower the risk of developing certain cancers. Fiber
is important in maintaining a healthy digestive system as it pushes toxins and
other excess waste through the intestines and supports healthy and conventional
bowel movements.[12][full citation needed][unreliable source?] One of the soluble fibres found within blackberries is
pectin. Pectin helps lower harmful cholesterol levels which lowers ones’
chances of heart disease.[12]
Blackberries have few calories.
Blackberries are more nutritious compared to other berries making it one of the
best berries one can consume.[13]
Nutrients
and antioxidant qualities
The blackberry is known to contain polyphenol antioxidants, naturally occurring chemicals
that can upregulate certain beneficial metabolic
processes in mammals.
The astringent
blackberry root is sometimes used in herbal medicine
as a treatment for diarrhea and dysentery.[14]
Blackberries are notable for their
high nutritional contents of dietary fiber,
vitamin C,
vitamin K,
folic acid
(a B vitamin),
and the essential mineral manganese.
Blackberries rank highly among
fruits for antioxidant strength, particularly due to their dense contents of polyphenolic compounds, such as ellagic acid,
tannins,
ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, anthocyanins and cyanidins.[15][16]
Blackberries have an ORAC value (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) of 5347 per 100 grams, including them among the
top-ranked ORAC fruits. Another report using a different assay for assessing
antioxidant strength placed blackberry at the top of more than 1000 antioxidant
foods consumed in the United States.[17]
Nutrient
content of seeds
Blackberries contain numerous large
seeds that are not always preferred by consumers. The seeds contain some oil
which is rich in omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and -6 fats (linoleic acid), as well as some protein,
dietary fiber, carotenoids, ellagitannins and ellagic acid.[18]
Cultivation
Commercial
cultivation
Worldwide, Mexico is the leading
producer of blackberries with nearly the entire crop being produced for export
into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe. The Mexican
market is almost entirely from the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi' but
the EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy'
spelling.). In the US, Oregon is the leading commercial blackberry producer in
the world, producing 42.6 million pounds on 6,180 acres (25.0 km2),
in 1995[19]
and 56.1 million pounds on 7,000 acres (28 km2) in 2009.[20]
Numerous cultivars
have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe[2]
and the United States.[21]
Since the many species form hybrids
easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their
ancestry.
'Marion' (marketed as "marionberry") is an important cultivar that
was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie'
(commonly called "olallieberry") berries.[22]
'Olallie' in turn is a cross between loganberry
and youngberry.
'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry
cultivars developed by the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural
Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding
program at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon.
The most recent cultivars released
from this program are the prickle-free cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl'
and 'Nightfall' as well as the very early ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'.
'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific
Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry',
'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', 'Kotata', 'Pacific' and 'Cascade'.[23]
Trailing blackberries are vigorous,
crown forming, require a trellis for support, and are less cold hardy than the erect or
semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the United States' Pacific Northwest,
these types do well in similar climates such as the United Kingdom, New
Zealand, Chile, and the Mediterranean countries.
Semi-erect, prickle-free
blackberries were first developed at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland. These are crown forming, very vigorous, and need a trellis
for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin' 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen
Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless',
'Smoothstem' and 'Triple Crown'. Recently, the cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna'
(also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been
planted on many thousands of hectares there.
The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types
are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root
initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are
prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho',
'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho' and 'Kiowa'. They are also
responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as
'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.
In raspberries, these types are
called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and
'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the University of Arkansas and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting
blackberry.[24]
They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above, however the
canes that emerge in the spring, will flower in mid-summer and fruit in late
summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool
mild climate such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.[citation needed]
'Illini Hardy' a semi-erect prickly
cultivar introduced by the University of Illinois
is cane hardy in zone 5, where traditionally blackberry production has been
problematic, since canes often failed to survive the winter.
Blackberry production in Mexico has
expanded enormously in the past decade. While once based on the cultivar
'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the
Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the
1990s. 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche' and a "wild Uruguayan
blackberry" as parents.[25]
Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the
widely grown 'Boysenberry' is the male parent. In order to produce these blackberries
in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud
development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used
to bring the plants into bloom.
Diseases
and pests
As a result of blackberries
belonging to the same genus as raspberries,[26]
they share the same diseases including anthracnose which can
cause the berry to have uneven ripening and sap flow may also be slowed.[27][28]
They also share the same remedies including the Bordeaux mixture,[29]
a combination of lime, water and Copper(II) sulfate.[30]
The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers
and grasses which may lead to pests or diseases.[31]
Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes as wild
blackberries may be infected[31]
and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.[32]
The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii is a serious pest of blackberries.[33]
Unlike its vinegar fly relatives which are primarily attracted to rotting or
fermented fruit, D. suzukii attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs
under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the
fruit's commercial value.[33]
Another pest is Amphorophora rubi,
known as the Blackberry Aphid, who not only eats blackberries but raspberries
as well.[34][35][36]
Byturus tomentosus (Raspberry beetle), Lampronia corticella (Raspberry Moth) and Anthonomus rubi (Strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest
blackberries.[37]
Folklore
Folklore in the United Kingdom is
told that blackberries should not be picked after Old Michaelmas
Day (11 October) as the devil has claimed them, having left a mark on the leaves by
urinating on them or pecking them.[citation needed] There is some value behind this legend as wetter and cooler
weather often allows the fruit to become infected by various molds such as Botryotinia
which give the fruit an unpleasant look and may be toxic.[38][39]
The entire wiki post can be found at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackberry
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