Tradition
From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a
group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in
the past.[1][2]
Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes
(like lawyer wigs or military officer spurs), but the idea has also been
applied to social norms such as greetings. Traditions can persist and evolve
for thousands of years—the word "tradition" itself derives from the Latin tradere or traderer
literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping. While it
is commonly assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have
been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural, over short
periods of time. Certain scholarly fields, such as anthropology
and biology,
have adapted the term "tradition," defining it more precisely than
its conventional use in order to facilitate scholarly discourse.
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Definition
of tradition
The English word
"tradition" comes from the Latin traditio, the noun from the
verb traderere or tradere (to transmit, to hand over, to give for
safekeeping); it was originally used in Roman law
to refer to the concept of legal transfers and inheritance.[3][4]
According to Anthony Giddens and others, the modern meaning of tradition can be seen as
having evolved in the European discourse in the last two hundred years, during
the Enlightenment period, as philosophers and thinkers counter posed the
concept of modernity with the concept of tradition, in the context of progress.[3][5][6]
As with many other generic terms,
there are many definitions of tradition.[1][2][4][7]
The concept includes a number of interrelated ideas; the unifying one is that
tradition refers to beliefs, objects or customs performed or believed in the
past, originating in it, transmitted through time by being taught by one
generation to the next, and are performed or believed in the present.[1][2]
Tradition can also refer to beliefs
or customs that are Prehistoric, with lost or arcane origins, existing from time immemorial.[8]
Originally, traditions were passed orally, without the need for a writing system.
Tools to aid this process include poetic devices
such as rhyme
and alliteration. The stories thus preserved are also referred to as
tradition, or as part of an oral tradition.
Even such traditions, however, are presumed to have originated (been
"invented" by humans) at some point.[2][3]
Traditions are often presumed to be ancient,
unalterable, and deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less
"natural" than is presumed.[9][10]
It is presumed that at least two transmissions over three generations
are required for a practice, belief or object to be seen as traditional.[8]
Some traditions were deliberately invented for one reason or another, often to
highlight or enhance the importance of a certain institution.[11]
Traditions may also be adapted to suit the needs of the day, and the changes
can become accepted as a part of the ancient tradition.[9][12]
Tradition changes slowly, with changes from one generation to the next not
being seen as significant.[13]
Thus, those carrying out the traditions will not be consciously aware of the
change, and even if a tradition undergoes major changes over many generations,
it will be seen as unchanged.[13]
There are various origins and fields
of tradition; they can refer to:
- the forms of artistic heritage of a particular culture.[14]
- beliefs or customs instituted and maintained by
societies and governments, such as national anthems and national holidays, such as Federal holidays in the United States.[9][10]
- beliefs or customs maintained by religious denominations
and church bodies that share history, customs, culture, and, to some
extent, body of teachings.[15][16]
For example, one can speak of Islam's tradition or Christianity's
tradition (see also traditionalism (religion)).
Many objects, beliefs and customs
can be traditional.[2]
Rituals of social interaction can be traditional, with phrases and gestures such as
saying "thank you", sending birth announcements, greeting cards,
etc.[2][17][18]
Tradition can also refer to larger concepts practiced by groups (family
traditions at Christmas[18]),
organizations (company's picnic) or societies, such as the practice of national and public
holidays.[9][10]
Some of the oldest traditions include monotheism
(three millennia) and citizenship (two millennia).[19]
It can also include material objects, such as buildings, works of art or tools.[2]
Tradition is often used as an adjective,
in contexts such as traditional music, traditional medicine, traditional values and others.[1]
In such constructions tradition refers to specific values and materials
particular to the discussed context, passed through generations.[16]
Invention
of tradition
The term "invention of tradition", introduced by E. J. Hobsbawm,
refers to situations when a new practice or object is introduced in a manner
that implies a connection with the past that is not necessarily present.[20]
A tradition may be deliberately created and promulgated for personal,
commercial, political, or national self-interest, as was done in colonial
Africa; or it may be adopted rapidly based on a single highly publicized event,
rather than developing and spreading organically in a population, as in the
case of the white wedding dress, which only became popular after Queen Victoria
wore a white gown at her wedding to Albert of Saxe-Coburg.[21]
An example of an invention of
tradition is the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster (location of the British Parliament) in the Gothic
style.[20]
Similarly, most of the traditions associated with monarchy of the United Kingdom,
seen as rooted deep in history, actually date to 19th century.[12]
Other examples include the invention of tradition in Africa and other colonial
holdings by the occupying forces.[22]
Requiring legitimacy, the colonial power would often invent a
"tradition" which they could use to legitimize their own position.
For example, a certain succession to a chiefdom might be recognized by a
colonial power as traditional in order to favour their own candidates for the
job. Often these inventions were based in some form of tradition, but were
exaggerated, distorted, or biased toward a particular interpretation.
Invented traditions are a central
component of modern national cultures, providing a commonality of experience
and promoting the unified national identity espoused by nationalism.[23]
Common examples include public holidays (particularly those unique to a
particular nation), the singing of national anthems, and traditional national
cuisine (see national dish). Expatriate and immigrant communities may continue to practice the
national traditions of their home nation.
In
scholarly discourse
In science, tradition is often used
in the literature in order to define the relationship of an author's thoughts
to that of his or her field.[24]
In 1948, philosopher of science Karl Popper suggested that there should be a
"rational theory of tradition" applied to science which was
fundamentally sociological. For Popper, each scientist who embarks on a certain
research trend inherits the tradition of the scientists before them as he or
she inherits their studies and any conclusions that superseded it.[24]
Unlike myth,
which is a means of explaining the natural world through means other than
logical criticism, scientific tradition was inherited from Socrates, who
proposed critical discussion, according to Popper.[25]
For Thomas Kuhn, who presented his thoughts in a paper presented in 1977, a
sense of such a critical inheritance of tradition is, historically, what sets
apart the best scientists who change their fields is an embrasure of tradition.[25]
Traditions are a subject of study in
several academic fields in social sciences—chiefly
anthropology, archeology, and biology—with somewhat different meanings in different
fields. It is also used in varying contexts in other fields, such as history, psychology
and sociology.
Social scientists and others have worked to refine the commonsense concept of
tradition to make it into a useful concept for scholarly analysis. In the 1970s
and 1980s, Edward Shils explored the concept in detail.[18]
Since then, a wide variety of social scientists have criticized traditional
ideas about tradition; meanwhile, "tradition" has come into usage in
biology as applied to nonhuman animals.
Tradition as a concept variously
defined in different disciplines should not be confused with various traditions
(perspectives, approaches) in those disciplines.[26]
Anthropology
Tradition is one of the key concepts
in anthropology; it can be said that anthropology is the study of
"tradition in traditional societies".[7]
There is however no "theory of tradition", as for most
anthropologists the need to discuss what tradition is seems unnecessary, as
defining tradition is both unnecessary (everyone can be expected to know what
it is) and unimportant (as small differences in definition would be just
technical).[7]
There are however dissenting views, as some scholars like Pascal Boyer
argue that defining tradition and developing theories based around it is of
importance to the discipline.[7]
Archaeology
In archaeology,
the term tradition is a set of cultures or industries which appear to develop on from one another over a period
of time. The term is especially common in the study of American archaeology.[18]
Biology
Biologists, when examining groups of
non-humans, have observed repeated behaviors which are taught within
communities from one generation to the next. Tradition is defined in biology as
"a behavioral practice that is relatively enduring (i.e., is performed
repeatedly over a period of time), that is shared among two or more members of
a group, that depends in part on socially aided learning for its generation in
new practitioners", and has been called a precursor to "culture"
in the anthropological sense.[27]
Behavioral traditions have been
observed in groups of fish, birds, and mammals. Groups of orangutans and
chimpanzees, in particular, may display large numbers of behavioral traditions,
and in chimpanzees, transfer of traditional behavior from one group to another
(not just within a group) has been observed. Such behavioral traditions may
have evolutionary significance, allowing adaptation at a faster rate than
genetic change.[28]
Musicology
and ethnomusicology
In the field of musicology
and ethnomusicology tradition refers to the belief systems, repertoire,
techniques, style and culture that is passed down through subsequent
generations. Tradition in music suggests a historical context with which one
can perceive distinguishable patterns. Along with a sense of history,
traditions have a fluidity that cause them to evolve and adapt over time. While
both musicology and ethnomusicology are defined by being 'the scholarly study
of music'[29]
they differ in their methodology and subject of research. 'Tradition, or
traditions, can be presented as a context in which to study the work of a
specific composer or as a part of a wide-ranging historical perspective.'[30]
Sociology
The concept of tradition, in early
sociological research (around the turn of the 19th and 20th century), referred
to that of the traditional society, as contrasted by the more modern industrial society.[12]
This approach was most notably portrayed in Max Weber's
concepts of traditional authority and modern rational-legal
authority.[12]
In more modern works, One hundred years later, sociology sees tradition as a
social construct used to contrast past with the present and as a form of rationality
used to justify certain course of action.[12]
Traditional society is characterized
by lack of distinction between family and business, division of labor influenced primarily by age, gender, and status, high
position of custom in the system of values, self-sufficiency, preference to
saving and accumulation of capital instead of productive investment, relative autarky.[12]
Early theories positing the simple, unilineal evolution of societies from traditional to industrial model are now
seen as too simplistic.[12]
In 1981 Edward Shils in his book Tradition
put forward a definition of tradition that became universally accepted.[12]
According to Shils, tradition is anything which is transmitted or handed down
from the past to the present.[12]
Another important sociological
aspect of tradition is the one that relates to rationality. It is also related
to the works of Max Weber (see theories of rationality), and were popularized and redefined in 1992 by Raymond Boudon
in his book Action.[12]
In this context tradition refers to the mode of thinking and action justified
as "it has always been that way".[12]
This line of reasoning forms the basis of the logical flaw of the appeal to tradition (or argumentum ad antiquitatem),[31]
which takes the form "this is right because we've always done it this
way."[32]
In most cases such an appeal can be refuted on the grounds that the
"tradition" being advocated may no longer be desirable, or, indeed,
may never have been despite its previous popularity.
Philosophy
The idea of tradition is important
in philosophy. Twentieth century philosophy is often divided between an
'analytic' tradition, dominant in Anglophone and Scandinavian countries, and a
'continental' tradition, dominant in German and Romance speaking Europe.
Increasingly central to continental philosophy is the project of deconstructing
what its proponents, following Martin Heidegger, call 'the tradition', which began with Plato and Aristotle.
In contrast, some continental philosophers - most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer - have attempted to rehabilitate the tradition of Aristotelianism.
This move has been replicated within analytic philosophy by Alasdair MacIntyre. However, MacIntyre has himself deconstructed the idea of
'the tradition', instead posing Aristotelianism
as one philosophical tradition in rivalry with others.
In
political and religious discourse
The concepts of tradition and
traditional values are frequently used in political and religious discourse to
establish the legitimacy of a particular set of values. In the United States in
the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the concept of tradition has been
used to argue for the centrality and legitimacy of conservative religious
values.[33]
Similarly, strands of orthodox theological thought from a number of world
religions openly identify themselves as wanting a return to tradition. For
example, the term "traditionalist Catholic" refers to those, such as Archbishop Lefebvre, who want the worship and practices of the church to be as
they were before the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65.[34]
Likewise, Sunni Muslims are referred to as Ahlus Sunnah wa Al-Jamā‘ah (Arabic:
أهل السنة والجماعة), literally "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]
and the community", emphasizing their attachment to religious and cultural
tradition.
More generally, tradition has been
used as a way of determining the political spectrum, with right-wing parties having a stronger affinity to the ways of the past
than left-wing ones.[citation needed] Here, the concept of adherence tradition is embodied by the
political philosophy of traditionalist conservatism (or simply traditionalism),
which emphasizes the need for the principles of natural law
and transcendent moral order, hierarchy
and organic unity, agrarianism, classicism and high culture,
and the intersecting spheres of loyalty.[35]
Traditionalists would therefore reject the notions of individualism,
liberalism, modernity, and social progress,
but promote cultural and educational renewal,[36]
and revive interest in the church, the family, the state and local community.
This view has been criticised for including in its notion of tradition
practices which are no longer considered to be desirable, for example,
stereotypical views of the place of women in domestic affairs.[37]
In other societies, especially ones
experiencing rapid social change, the idea of what is "traditional"
may be widely contested, with different groups striving to establish their own
values as the legitimate traditional ones. Defining and enacting traditions in
some cases can be a means of building unity between subgroups in a diverse
society; in other cases, tradition is a means of othering
and keeping groups distinct from one another.[33]
In
artistic discourse
In artistic contexts, in the
performance of traditional genres (such as traditional dance), adherence to traditional guidelines is of greater
importance than performer's preferences.[1]
It is often the unchanging form of certain arts that leads to their perception
as traditional.[1]
For artistic endeavors, tradition has been used as a contrast to creativity,
with traditional and folk art associated with unoriginal imitation or repetition, in
contrast to fine art, which is valued for being original and unique. More recent
philosophy of art, however, considers interaction with tradition as integral to
the development of new artistic expression.[33]
Relationship
to other concepts
In the social sciences, tradition
is often contrasted with modernity, particularly in terms of whole
societies. This dichotomy is generally associated with a linear model of social
change, in which societies progress from being traditional to being modern.[38]
Tradition-oriented societies have been characterized as valuing filial piety,
harmony and group welfare, stability, and interdependence,
while a society exhibiting modernity would value "individualism (with free
will and choice), mobility, and progress."[33]
Another author discussing tradition in relationship to modernity, Anthony
Giddens, sees tradition as something bound to ritual, where ritual guarantees
the continuation of tradition.[39]
Gusfield and others, though, criticize this dichotomy as oversimplified,
arguing that tradition is dynamic, heterogeneous, and coexists successfully
with modernity even within individuals.[38]
Tradition should be differentiated
from customs, conventions, laws, norms,
routines, rules and similar concepts. Whereas
tradition is supposed to be invariable, they are seen as more flexible and
subject to innovation and change.[1][9]
Whereas justification for tradition is ideological,
the justification for other similar concepts is more practical or technical.[10]
Over time, customs, routines, conventions, rules and such can evolve into
traditions, but that usually requires that they stop having (primarily) a
practical purpose.[10]
For example, wigs worn by lawyers were at first common and fashionable; spurs worn by military officials were at
first practical but now are both impractical and traditional.[10]
Preservation
of tradition
In many countries, concerted
attempts are being made to preserve traditions that are at risk of being lost.
A number of factors can exacerbate the loss of tradition, including
industrialization, globalization, and the assimilation or marginalization
of specific cultural groups.[40]
Customary celebrations and lifestyles are among the traditions that are sought
to be preserved.[41][42]
Likewise, the concept of tradition has been used to defend the preservation and
reintroduction of minority languages such as Cornish
under the auspices of the European Charter for Regional or Minority
Languages.[43]
Specifically, the charter holds that these languages "contribute to the
maintenance and development of Europe's cultural wealth and traditions".
The Charter goes on to call for "the use or adoption... of traditional and
correct forms of place-names in regional or minority languages".[44]
Similarly, UNESCO
includes both "oral tradition" and "traditional
manifestations" in its definition of a country's cultural properties and
heritage. It therefore works to preserve tradition in countries such as Brazil.[45]
In Japan, certain artworks, structures,
craft techniques and performing arts are considered by the Japanese government
to be a precious legacy of the Japanese people, and are protected under the
Japanese Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.[46]
This law also identifies people skilled at traditional arts as "National
Living Treasures", and encourages the preservation
of their craft.[47]
For native peoples like the Māori
in New Zealand, there is conflict between the fluid identity assumed as part of
modern society and the traditional identity with the obligations that accompany
it; the loss of language heightens the feeling of isolation and damages the
ability to perpetuate tradition.[40]
The entire wiki link can be found at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradition
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